Alexander Thomson
b. Balfron, Scotland, 1817;
d. Glasgow, I 1875.

Alexander Thomson was the last and most original of the few great Neo-Classic famous architects. Employed in architecture from the age of 14, he worked with John Baird from 1836 until he set up in his own practice in Glasgow in 1849. Thomson’s quest was for the timeless essence of classical architecture on to which he would build his forms for the third quarter of the C19. Technically his work is highly inventive but only to serve his rhetorical and formal goals in the manipulation of surfaces and spaces. The range of his invention is remarkable, stretching from endless decorative devices to the formal separation of the planes of structural columns and timber- framed glazing on the facades; the design of dynamically rhythmical facades and tightly geometric proportions; masterly interior effects of complex spaces through daring use of structure and subtle borrowed light. Uniquely among his contemporaries, Thomson’s buildings (the most original British architecture in the century between Soane and Mackintosh) fit their city context, clarifying the urban form of Glasgow.

Major buildings / works:
Double Villa and Holmwood Villa, Glasgow, 1856-7.
Caledonia Road and St Vincent Street churches, Glasgow, 1856.
Moray Place, Glasgow, c.1857.
Gaffney Building, Glasgow, 1860.
Queens Park Church and Great Western Terrace, Glasgow, 1867.
Ellisland Villa and the Egyptian Halls, Glasgow, 1871.

Bibliography:
Alexander Thomson, “An enquiry as to the appropriateness of the Gothic style…” (lecture given on 7 May 1866, most recently published in College Courant (Glasgow University), 6-7, 1954); “Four lectures on architecture” (to the Glasgow School of Art, 1874; The British Architect, 1 May, 5 June, 24 July, 30 Oct. and 20 Nov. 1874). J. McKean, “The Architectonics and Ideals of Alexander Thomson”, AA Files, London, No. 9, Summer 1985; “La Citt? di Alexander Thomson”, Glasgow Forma e Progetto della Clad, ed. R. Bocchi, Venice, 1990.

Paul Wallot
b. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1841;
d. Langenschwalbach, 1912.

Late c19 German architect, who is best known for the Reichstag in Berlin. Wallot studied architecture in Berlin under two influential Prussian famous architects and academics, Richard Lucae and Martin Gropius. The latter was professor at the Bauakademie and director of the Kunstschule. The prevailing architectural climate of the second half of the c19 reflected the bourgeois ambitions of the Bismarckian empire in a spate of buildings executed in dark brick with stone trim and fussy metallic detailing. This nationalistic mode lasted well into the c20, and Wallot’s early work in Frankfurt shows that he had absorbed its influence. His career reached a watershed in 1884 when he won the competition for the Reichstag building in Berlin, his overwhelmingly monumental Neo-Baroque design owing more to Vanbrugh than Bernini. This and other buildings formed part of a general revival of Neo-Baroque taste which began to challenge the established order. The Reichstag took ten years to build and was intended to symbolize the power and grandeur of the New Reich (ironically the Reichstag was destroyed by fire in 1933 during Hitler’s rise to power and reconstructed during the 1970s). This commission brought Wallot fame and established his reputation, also earning him a teaching post at the Art Academy in Dresden. He was an influential teacher; his students included Heinrich Stratimer, the noted architect and engineer.

Major buildings / works:
Store, Offices and Residence, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1882.
Reichstag, Berlin, 1884-94.
House, Darmstadt Artists’ Colony, 1901.
President of the Reichstag’s Residence, Berlin, 1903.

Bibliography:
W Mackowsky, Paul Wallot and seine Schuler, Berlin, 1912.

Hans Scharoun
b. Bremen, 1893;
d. Berlin, 1972.

The most significant German Modernist to establish himself a famous architect before the Nazi takeover, remain in Germany, then reemerge to a major career in the 1950s and 60s; he was also the most important German exponent of “Organic” architecture. He studied architecture in Berlin, and spent the First World War years in the reconstruction of East Prussia. Following the October Revolution of 1918 he became a member of Bruno Taut’s Expressionist circle and contributed to the “Glass Chain” correspondence; his lifelong commitment to socialism dates from this time. He became known in the early 1920s for a number of progressive competition designs, was given a chair at the Breslau Arts Academy in 1925, and was elected to the “Ring” in 1926. Owing to economic circumstances, however, he was unable to build until late in the decade, producing a controversial house at the Stuttgart Weissenhofsiedlung of the Deutscher Werkbund (1927). An ingenious block of flats at the subsequent Werkbund Exhibition at Breslau (1929) confirmed his reputation as a bold new talent, and he went on to build several housing projects in Berlin, including a substantial part of Siemensstadt, for which he also determined the master plan. In 1932 Scharoun built the Schminke House at Lobau in Saxony, experimenting with an oblique stair, and discovering a new kind of dynamic interior space which was to become the hallmark of his later work. This was his last work in the Modernist idiom, for as it was completed the Nazis took over. Scharoun remained in Berlin, building more than a dozen private houses, traditional on the outside, yet with extraordinarily fluid spaces within. During this difficult period he consolidated his friendship with the architect and theorist Hugo HARING, who became an important influence on his work, and he took part in Haring’s art school Kunst and Werk. He was able to re-emerge after the war with a consolidated architectural philosophy and renewed energy, but had to wait to see his ideas fulfilled. In 1946 he was made City Architect of Berlin, but lost the post for political reasons before any of his ideas were realized. He became involved in teaching again, and in 1955 helped refound the Berlin Arts Academy. From the late 1940s he won major competitions, but time and again designs remained unbuilt, the most tragic case being the theatre for Kassel of 1952-3, abandoned after site work had started. Thus Scharoun had to wait until 1963 to see a major public building completed: the Philharmonic in Berlin, a competition winner of 1956. This revolutionary con?cert hall, with terraces of seats surrounding the orchestra on all sides and a contrasting labyrinthine foyer, became world famous and has been much imitated. It was a turning-point in Scharoun’s career, confirming his credibility and bringing him commissions such as the German Maritime Museum in Bremerhaven and the German Embassy in Brasilia. Until his death (1972) he had as much work as he could cope with, and several projects were completed posthumously. While the Philharmonic was under construction two other projects were realized which became prototypes for the later work: the Geschwister Scholl school at Liinen (1958-62) and housing blocks Romeo and Juliet at Stuttgart (1956-9). Both demonstrated Scharoun’s concern with an almost aggressive articulation of parts, allowing each classroom or flat a strong individual identity which the user could comprehend. The parts of a building had to be like individuals in a democracy: contributing to the whole yet retaining strong identities of their own. In a period when most architects allowed space to be dictated by the construction grid, Scharoun’s work stood out in its specificity and individuality, and many of his ideas retain their relevance today.

List of major buildings / works:
Schminke House, LObau, Saxoy, 1932.
Philharmonic, Berlin, 1956-63,
Romeo and Juliet housing blocks, Stuttgart, 1956-9.
Geschwister Scholl school, Lunen, Germany, 1958-62.

Bibliography
Peter Pfankuch (ed.), Hans Scharoun,13crim, 1974. Peter Blundell Jones, Hans Scharoun: a monograph, London, 1978.

Vincenzo Scamozzi
b. Vicenza, 1548 or 1552;
d. Venice, 1616.

Vincenzo Scamozzi, a late Renaissance theorist, eclectic architect and theatre designer. In his youth he took part in the activities of the Accademia Olimpica in Vicenza, guided and influenced by his father, Giandomenico Scamozzi. In 1569 he was spo?radically in Venice. In 1574 he read Vitruvius, jotting down an abundance of notes and actively accepting Vitruvius’s statement Architectura est scientia. In 1578 he went to Rome, where he spent eighteen months making a careful study of ancient buildings. In a second visit to Rome (1585) and on journeys through Austria, Hungary, Germany, France and Switzerland (1559 and 1604) he developed his eclectic view of previous architectural styles, learning from and admiring buildings such as the Gothic cathedral which were generally despised by his contemporaries. Many believe that Palladio was the dominant influence on Scamozzi, perhaps because he carried on projects originally started by the master (the Villa Rotonda, Teatro Olimpico etc.), but his debt to Serlio was probably far greater; no doubt, though, that in his maturity he achieved a personal and independent style. He is mostly quoted and remembered as the author of one of the later and comprehensive Renaissance treatises on architecture (L’Idea dell’architettura universale ? 6 books out of 10 planned) published in Venice in 1615, the year before his death. He sees the building as “a scientific habit lodged in the architect’s mind”, stressing with originality the independence and fullness of intellectual creation vis-?-vis the practical act. As “author” of a considerable number of projects and buildings, from Palazzo Godi in Vicenza (1569) to Palazzo Contarini in Venice (1609), he is rather aptly summed up by Milizia’s judgement (in Memorie degli architetti antichi e moderni, 1785, Vol. II): “simple, majestic and correct”. He was prepared to diverge from Palladio, for example at the Teatro Olimpico, where, in contrast to Palladio’s adherence to Vitruvian ideas, Scamozzi tried to integrate the stage setting into the theatrical space. In his theatre at Sabbioneta (1588-90), the first Italian building meant to house a theatre with its own fa?ades, it is clear from the surviving description of the (demolished) stage that Scamozzi rejected the architectural proscenium of Palladio’s Olimpico. Scamozzi’s Villa Molino alla Mandria (1597) is almost an antithesis to Palladio’s Villa Rotonda. The most characteristic of his town palaces are the Palazzo Galeazzo Trissino al Corso in Vicenza and the Palazzo Contarini in Venice, with a Serlian lower part.

List of major buildings / works:
Palazzo Godi, Vicenza, 1569. Villa Pisani, Lonigo, 1576.
Villa Capra (La Rotonda; continuing Palladio’s earlier work), Vicenza, 1580-91.
Procuratie Nuove, Venice, 1582-93.
Stage of Palladio’s Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, 1584-5.
Theatre, Sabbioneta, 1588-90.
Church and Monastery of S. Nicola del Tolentiru (on building initiated by Palladio), Venice, 1591.
Anteroom, Library of S. Marco, Venice, 1591.
Palazzo Galeazzo Trissino al Corso, Vicenza, 1592.
Palazzo Duodo a S. Maria Zobenigo, Venice, 1592.
Villa Duodo, church and 6 chapels of S. Giorgio, Monselice, 1593.
Villa Molino alla Mandria, 1597. Salzburg Cathedral (work to), 1607.
Villa Trevisan, S. Dona di Piave, 1609.
Palazzo Contanni, Venice, 1609.
Palazzo Comunale, Bergamo, 1611.

Bibliography
Vincenzo Scamozzi, Taccumo di viaggio da Pang: a Venezia, Venice and Rome, 1600 (ed. F. Barbieri, 1959);
Vincenzo Scamozzi, L’Idea dell’architettura universale, 1615 (Books III and VI only ed. J. Browne, London, 1669).
Franco Barbieri, Vincenzo Scamozzi, Vicenza, 1952.

Robert Adam
b. Kirkcaldy, Fife, 1728;
d. London, 1792.

Unquestionably Scotland’s most famous architect and one of the most celebrated of British architects. He formed a fertile repertory of new ideas on a visit to Italy (1754-8), and at his return to London he was determined to become the leader of classical revival in England in architecture and decoration. His ability to select and use motifs from the classical antique in an original way led to his success, and his interior designs are one of the finest expressions of C18 artistic achievement. Adam had decided, whilst still in Italy, to measure the ruins of the Roman emperor Diocletian’s palace at Spalatro. This experience helped him to abstract the essential details of antiquity, and then infuse them with a personal slant composed of many component pieces. Robert was the second surviving son of William Adam (1689-1748). Himself the son of a builder, William had become one of the first strictly classical architects working in Scotland. He owed a little to the two principal architects of the previous generation, Sir William Bruce (c.1630-1710) and James Smith (c.1645-1731), and he used architectural forms as they did, from a wide variety of sources. This gave a “vigorous and sometimes over-dressed character” to the facades of his houses. The same might, unfairly, be said of his son’s interior schemes. The most unusual of the interior wall treatments Robert created were those which were based on Etruscan vase decoration. The Etruscan Dressing Room at Osterley Park, Middlesex (1775-6), is the only substantial survival of at least eight such rooms; its fans, palmettes, painted pedestals, urns, sphinxes and roundels of disporting classical figures make a unique pattern. It breaks with the servitude to antiquity in an original way. Adam decorative schemes are associated with a lavish use of colour. This can be observed not only in the actual settings but in their surviving drawings. Some nine thousand of these survive (Sir John Soane’s Museum, London), and often surprise by their strength and clarity of colour. The Adam style was created by a true eclectic who incorporated lightness, smallness of ornament, colour, and archaeological, Italian, French and Renaissance influences. That it has enjoyed lasting approval is due to the quality of Robert Adam’s directing, if ruthless, mind, which was backed by superb craftsmen and, thanks to his acute business sense, by a family firm to supply all the building materials needed.

List of major buildings / works
Hatchlands, Surrey, 1758-61.
Harewood House, Yorks., 1759-71.
Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire, 1760-70.
Osterley Park, Middx, 1761-80.
Syon House, Middx, 1762-9.
Nostell Priory, Yorks., 1766-70.
Newby Hall, Yorks., 1767-80.
Saltram, Devon, 1768-9.
Chandos House, 2 Queen Anne Street, London, 1771.
Royal Society of Arts, London, 1772-4.
20 St James’s Square, London, 1772-4.
20 Portman Square, London, 1775-7.

Bibliography
Robert Adam, The Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia, 1764.
Robert Adam, The Works in Architecture of Robert and James Adam, 1773-9, 1822.
William Adam, Vitruvius Scoticus, 1810.
John Fleming, Robert Adam and his Circle in Edinburgh and Rome, London, 1962. Geoffrey Beard, The Work of Robert Adam, London, 1978.
John Gifford, William Adam, Edinburgh, 1989. GB

Bruno Taut
b. Konigsberg, 1880;
d. Istanbul, 1938. I

Key pioneer German avant-garde famous architect and theorist, associated initially with the Activist group of Expressionists and later with the new objectivity or social functionalism. Trained briefly in Konigsberg and Berlin-Charlottenburg, Taut worked in Theodor Fischer’s office in Stuttgart (1904-8) before opening his own firm in Berlin (1910). He ran a busy practice with office and exhibition projects before the First World War. He completed his famous Glass Pavilion for the Werkbund Exhibition, Cologne, in 1914. A year earlier he had designed the Steel Industrial Pavilion for the Leipziger Fair. Both buildings were erected in conjunction with his partner Franz Hoffmann, although the Glass Pavilion was the product of a close collaboration between Taut and his mentor, the Expressionist poet Paul Scheerbart (1887?1915). After the war, Taut became the virtual leader of the Berlin architectural avant-garde. In 1918 he had assumed chairmanship of the Arbeitsrat fur Kunst, with responsibility for shaping the “Architectural Programme” of that year. In 1919 he saw the publication of drawings prepared during the war depicting a visionary Utopia under the title Alpine Architektur. He issued his Expressionist supplement Friihlicht as part of a planning magazine in Berlin (1920-21) and as a “Glass Chain” publication in its own right from Magdeburg (1921-2) after he had become the City Architect. In 1923 he returned to Berlin to recommence practice with his brother Max Taut (1887?1967) and Hoffmann. He produced his book Modern Architecture in English in 1930 for the Studio Press. By the end of the 1920s Taut had become well known as a propagandist of the Neue Sachlichkeit or the “New Objective” architecture. He built many estates in Berlin, including “Onkel Tom’s” Estate, subsequently often using Marxist colours for the exterior faces. He left Germany for the USSR in 1932 and a year later went to Japan, where he stayed until 1936. He eventual?ly died in Istanbul in 1938, the year in which he had entered the competition for a new parliament building in Ankara.

Major buildings / works:
L Steel Industries Pavilion, Leipzig, 1913.
Garden City “Am Falkenberg”, Berlin, 1913-14.
Glass Pavilion, Werkbund Exhibition, Cologne, 1914.
General Plan for Magdeburg, 1921.
Housing Estates: Berlin-Tegel, 1924-32;
Berlin-Britz, 1925-30;
Berlin?Zehlendorf (”Onkel Tom’s” Estate), 1926-31 etc.

Bibliography:
J Bruno Taut, Die StadtkrOne, Jena, 1919.
J Bruno Taut, Alpine Architecture, Hagen, 1919.
J Bruno Taut, Friihlicht, 1920-21.
J Bruno Taut, Die neue Wohnung, Leipzig, 1924.
J Bruno Taut, Bauen, Leipzig, 1927.
J Bruno Taut, Modern Architecture, London, 1930.
K. Junghans, Bruno Taut 1880-1938, Berlin, 1970.
Dennis Sharp (ed.), Glass Architecture/Alpine Architecture, London, 1972.
I. Boyd Whyte, Bruno Taut and the Architecture of Activism, Cambridge, 1982.

Antonio Sant’Elia
b. Como, 1888;
d. Monfalcone, 1916. I

Only two years before his tragic death in the First World War, a famous architect, Antonio Sant’Elia had published a spirited manifesto accompanied by a collection of visionary drawings which were to become some of the most potent architectural images of the Twentieth Century. He studied architecture in Como, receiving a diploma in 1905, at the Accademia di Brera in Milan and subsequently at the Scuola di Belle Arti in Bologna, where he received his diploma in 1912. Early influences included both Vienna Secession and Stile Liberty architects, but it was a fasci?nation for the soaring skyscrapers of Chicago and New York which provided the inspiration for the drawings of Sant’Elia’s utopian metropolis ? the Citt? Nuova. His drawings evoke a Brave New World where the machine is omnipotent and the city consists of monumental tow?ers and stark abstract forms. In 1912 he joined with several radical Milanese architects, including Mario Chiattone and Marcello Nizzoli, to form the Nuove Tendenze group, which rejected the dogma of history in order to embrace technology and the future. Sant’Elia contributed to the group’s first exhibition some two years later. His preface to the catalogue, entitled the Messaggio, was slightly reworked and published under the title Manifesto of Futurist Architecture. This seminal document echoed much of the Futurists’ propaganda by attacking the anachronisms of the past and calling for a new order focused on the machine age.

List of major buildings / works by Antonio Sant’elia:
Memorial to the War Dead (designed, after a sketch by Sant’Elia, by Enrico Prampolini, completed by Giuseppe Terragni and Enrico Prampolini, Como, 1933). Almost 300 drawings and projects.
Bibliography
Eric Langenskiold, Michele Sanmicheli, the architect of Verona, Uppsala, 1938.
L. Puppi, Michele Sanmicheli, Padua, 1971.
Ulrich Conrads, Programs and Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Cambridge, 1970.
Caroline Tisdall and Angelo Bozzolla, Futurism, London, 1977.
Luciano Caramel and Alberto Longatti, Antonio Sant’Elia ? The Complete Works, New York, 1987.

Clorindo Testa
b. Naples, 1923.

Clorindo Testa - Prominent Latin-American famous architect who employs a rigorously empirical approach to the process of architecture. He studied at the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism of the National University of Buenos Aires at a time when the academic curriculum was still dominated by the Beaux-Arts tradition. After graduating in 1948 he joined the Buenos Aires Regulating Plan but left the following year for Italy, where he spent three years pursuing an abiding interest in painting. On returning to Argentina he established a private practice, but he prefers to work with a diversity of colleagues on individual projects. Thus his work defies easy classification, but it is often characterized by a boldness of form and spatial manipulation also seen in his paintings and sketches. The use of a heavily textured concrete finish in his competition-winning design for the project at La Pampa, Santa Rosa, is often credited as the first Brutalist building in Argentina. His best-known work, the Bank of London in Buenos Aires, a huge concrete structure dominating a narrow street, is often cited as the city’s most important 20-century building.

Major buildings / works:
Civic Centre and Bus Terminal, Santa Rosa (with Boris Dabinovic, Augusto Gaido and Francisco Rossi), 1955-63.
Bank of London and South America, Buenos Aires (with Sepra), 1959-66.
National Library, Buenos Aires (with Francisco Bullrich and Alicia Cazzaniga de Bullrich), 1962-84; unfinished (1990).
Government Hospital, Ivory Coast, 1979.

Bibliography:
Julio Llimas, Clorindo Testa, Buenos Aires, 1962.
Francisco Bullrich, New Directions in Latin- American Architecture, New York, 1969. Damian Bayon and Paolo Gasparini, The Changing Shape of Latin-American Architecture, Chichester, 1979.
World Architecture S (special issue), 1990.

Karl Friedrich Schinkel
b. Neuruppin, Prussia, 1781;
d. Berlin, I 1841.

Karl Friedrich Schinkel was a leading exponent of Prussian Neo-Classicism. Following his studies at the Bauakademie in Berlin, where he was taught by Friedrich GILLY, Schinkel travelled to Italy and France (1803-5). He returned to an economically depressed Prussia under French occupation, and worked initially as a painter and stage designer. He painted his first panorama for Karl Wilhelm Gropius in 1806 and had completed a further forty by 1815. Schinkel also produced oil paintings at this time in a romantic manner that drew equally on classical and medieval sources, and created many stage sets, most notably for The Magic Flute (1815) and The Maid of Orleans (1816). Schinkel was appointed Surveyor to the Prussian Building Commission in 1810 and, following the defeat of the French, he remodelled the city plan and created a series of monumental buildings that expressed the cultural ambitions of 19th Century Prussia. Disenchantment with the politics of the French Revolution and with Napoleonism turned the Prussian architects against the Neo-Roman manner favoured by the Ecole des Beaux Arts. This aesthetic preference, reinforced by the need for strict economy, led Schinkel to a Neo-Greek style that mirrored the German idealist vision of Athenian Greece as a model of political and moral freedom. The resulting architecture was based on the simplest constructional forms, the column and lintel. Schinkel’s first major work in Berlin was the Neue Wache on Unter den Linden (1816-18), a simple tubiform block fronted by a Doric portico. In April 1818 he was commissioned to rebuild the Nationaltheater, and produced a design that gave clear articulation to the three main functions of the building ? auditorium, concert hall, reception rooms ? within a highly disciplined external system of columns, pilasters and cornices. His most celebrated commission for Berlin, the Altes Museum (1823-30), has as its focus a central rotunda, designed to house antique sculpture, while the colonnaded main facade derives from the Greek stoa. Schinkel was entirely undogmatic in his classicism, however, and provided designs in both classical and Gothic manners for the Werdersche Kirche in Berlin, which was ultimately built in an anglicized brick Gothic style (1824-30). In contrast, the Nikolaikirche in Potsdam used a centralized plan derived from Gilly, and the four small churches built during the 1830s in the north of Berlin were all Neo-Classical. In 1826 Schinkel travelled to England and Scotland, where he was particularly impressed by the architecture of the early Industrial Revolution. The iron frame of a mill in Stroud, Gloucestershire, provided Schinkel with the model for his Bauakademie in Berlin (1831-5), whose frame and infill construction provided a model for the industrial classicism of Peter Behrens, and, ultimately, for the steel frame structures of Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe. As court architect, Schinkel was responsible for many interiors and summer residences for the Prussian royal family, including a pavilion in the park of Schloss Charlottenburg (1824-5), Schloss Glienicke (1824 on, Grosse Neugierde 1835-7), and the Romische Bader and Charlottenhof in the park of Sanssouci, Potsdam. Royal connections also prompted the two great schemes of the 1830s: a palace for King Otto von Wittelsbach on the Acropolis in Athens (1834); and a summer residence for the Tsarina of Russia at Orianda in the Crimea (1838). Neither project was built, but Schinkel’s brilliant drawings survive to mark a climax in the dialogue between Neo-Classical Prussia and Periclean Athens.

List of major buildings / works:
Mausoleum for Queen Luise of Prussia, 1810.
Neue Wache, Berlin, 1816-18.
Zivilkasino, Potsdam, 1818-24.
Schauspielhaus, Berlin, 1818-21.
Friedrich Werdersche Kirche, Berlin, 1821-30.
Altes Museum, Berlin, 1823-30.
Kasino, Schloss Glienicke, near Potsdam, 1824-5.
Charlottenhof, Sanssouci, Potsdam, 1826-36.
Allgemeine Bauakademie, Berlin, 1831-6.
Elizabeth-Kirche, Berlin, 1832-4.
Project: Palace for Otto von Wittelsbach on the Acropolis, Athens, 1834.
Roman Baths, Sanssouci, Potsdam, 1834-40.
Project: Palace for the Tsarina of Russia, Orianda, near Yalta, 1838.

Bibliography
Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Collection of Architectural Designs (based on the Archttektomsches Entwitrfe edition of 1866: London, 1981, 1984).
August Grisebach, Karl Friedrich Schmkel, Leipzig, 1924; reprinted Munich, 1981.
H. G. Pundt, Schmkers Berlin, Cambridge, Mass., 1972.
David Watkin and Tilman Mellinghoff, German Architecture and the Classical Ideal 1740-1840, London, 1987.